NASA Aura Satellite Pinpoints Causes of 2011 Arctic Ozone Hole

Maps of ozone concentrations over the Arctic come from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) on NASA's Aura satellite. 

The left image shows March 19, 2010, and the right shows the same date in 2011. 

March 2010 had relatively high ozone, while March 2011 has low levels. 

Credit: NASA/Goddard.

A combination of extreme cold temperatures, man-made chemicals and a stagnant atmosphere were behind what became known as the Arctic ozone hole of 2011, a new NASA study finds.

Even when both poles of the planet undergo ozone losses during the winter, the Arctic's ozone depletion tends to be milder and shorter-lived than the Antarctic's.

This is because the three key ingredients needed for ozone-destroying chemical reactions -chlorine from man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), frigid temperatures and sunlight- are not usually present in the Arctic at the same time: the northernmost latitudes are generally not cold enough when the sun reappears in the sky in early spring. Still, in 2011, ozone concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere were about 20 percent lower than its late winter average.

The new study shows that, while chlorine in the Arctic stratosphere was the ultimate culprit of the severe ozone loss of winter of 2011, unusually cold and persistent temperatures also spurred ozone destruction.

Furthermore, uncommon atmospheric conditions blocked wind-driven transport of ozone from the tropics, halting the seasonal ozone resupply until April.

"You can safely say that 2011 was very atypical: In over 30 years of satellite records, we hadn't seen any time where it was this cold for this long," said Susan E. Strahan, an atmospheric scientist at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., and main author of the new paper, which was recently published in the Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres.

"Arctic ozone levels were possibly the lowest ever recorded, but they were still significantly higher than the Antarctic's," Strahan said.

"There was about half as much ozone loss as in the Antarctic and the ozone levels remained well above 220 Dobson units, which is the threshold for calling the ozone loss a 'hole' in the Antarctic - so the Arctic ozone loss of 2011 didn't constitute an ozone hole."

The majority of ozone depletion in the Arctic happens inside the so-called polar vortex: a region of fast-blowing circular winds that intensify in the fall and isolate the air mass within the vortex, keeping it very cold.

Most years, atmospheric waves knock the vortex to lower latitudes in later winter, where it breaks up. In comparison, the Antarctic vortex is very stable and lasts until the middle of spring. But in 2011, an unusually quiescent atmosphere allowed the Arctic vortex to remain strong for four months, maintaining frigid temperatures even after the sun reappeared in March and promoting the chemical processes that deplete ozone.

The vortex also played another role in the record ozone low.

"Most ozone found in the Arctic is produced in the tropics and is transported to the Arctic," Strahan said. "But if you have a strong vortex, it's like locking the door -- the ozone can't get in."

Gene Loss Causes Leukemia

In patients with leukemia, the formation of white blood cells in the bone marrow is disrupted. This makes leukemia patients particularly susceptible to infections, because properly functioning white blood cells ensure protection against intruders such as viruses and bacteria. In the US alone, every year around 50.000 adults and children develop leukemia.

T-ALL is caused by interplay of various factors

Leukemia occurs in various forms, one of which is T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL). Cells that normally develop into white blood cells, start to divide in an uncontrolled way, giving rise to a huge number of immature cells.

Until now, few factors have been associated with an increased risk of developing T-ALL, but it is clear that T-ALL develops when errors occur in several genes simultaneously. Therefore, it is not only important to identify genes that underlie T-ALL, but also to unravel what combinations give rise to the disease.

This is a crucial element in the development of future specific combination therapies, promising to be more effective than therapies that focus only on one target.

PTPN2 has a tumor suppressor role

Maria Kleppe and Jan Cools of VIB-K.U.Leuven, together with Peter Vandenberghe of the Centre for Human Genetics and Jean Soulier of the Hôpital Saint-Louis in Paris, now identified the gene PTPN2 as another major player.

In the DNA of the cells of some leukemia patients, they noticed that the PTPN2 gene was lost, causing proliferation of the cancerous cells. In addition, PTPN2 was identified as a negative regulator of the activity of a specific kinase. The study provides genetic and functional evidence for a tumor suppressor role of PTPN2.