Leaving Exoplanets aside, Exomoons may harbour life too

Shooting for the exomoon. 

Credit: CBC11, CC BY-SA

In the Star Wars universe, everyone's favourite furry aliens, the Ewoks, famously lived on the "forest moon of Endor".

In scientific terms, the Ewok's home world would be referred to as an exomoon, which is simply a moon that orbits an exoplanet, any planet that orbits a star other than our sun.

Although more than 1,000 exoplanets have been discovered since the first one was found in 1995, only a handful of those are thought to be habitable, at least by life as we know it.

New research shows that exomoons, too, could provide habitable environments. Although we are yet to find exomoons, we have good reasons to believe that there should be many, even more than exoplanets.

Goldilocks zone
Perhaps the most habitable planet found to date is the recently announced Kepler-186f.

This is one of five exoplanets discovered by NASA's Kepler satellite, all orbiting a small, faint, red dwarf star, 500 light years away in the constellation of Cygnus.

Kepler-186f is an Earth-sized planet that orbits its star in only 130 days and is about as distant from its star as Mercury is from the Sun. But, because the red dwarf is much dimmer than the Sun, Kepler-186f receives only about one-third of the energy that the Earth does.

As a result, Kepler-186f lies at the outer edge of its star's "habitable zone".

This is the hypothetical region of space surrounding a star in which liquid water may conceivably exist on the surface of any exoplanets.

In our own solar system, Venus lies too close to the Sun and is too hot.

Mars lies too far from the Sun and is too cold.

But Earth, of course, lies within the critical "Goldilocks zone", where the temperature is just right.

Simply residing in the habitable zone, though, is no guarantee that an exoplanet has water oceans.

The climate of a planet is much more complicated than we can capture with a simple calculation based on the distance of a planet from a star.

We know that Mars probably had running water on its surface in the past, but now it is a frozen desert. Earth, meanwhile, was probably in a completely frozen "snowball" state about 650m years ago.

Duncan Forgan

Recent research by Duncan Forgan and Vergil Yotov at the University of Edinburgh highlights the various factors that may make an exomoon more or less habitable.

They investigate how the climate of an exomoon will be affected by tidal stresses which provide a source of internal heating for the exomoon as it is stretched and deformed by the gravitational pull of its planet.

They also investigated how light reflected from the exoplanet, and eclipses by the exoplanet, can also subtly alter the exomoon's climate.

The researchers lump theoretical exomoons into a number of classifications: "habitable", "hot", "snowball" or "transient".

Those in the first class have more than 10% of their surface at a temperature between the freezing and boiling points of water, with only a small fluctuation around the average temperature value.

Those in the second class have average temperatures above 100°C at all times, whereas those in the third class are permanently frozen, in both cases less than 10% of the surface is habitable.

Exomoons in the fourth, transient class are on average habitable, but the amount of habitable surface area varies widely with time.

Overall, this research shows that exomoon climates are rather more complex than previous research has supposed.

As yet, no exomoons have been discovered, but there are various techniques proposed for finding them.

One way is by studying the effects that an exomoon will have on the exoplanet it is orbiting – their gravitational connection means there will be a to-and-fro tugging between them.

This will cause variations in the times at which the planet transits in front of its star and in the durations of these transits, which we are able to measure.

These time variations will only be a few seconds at most, so very accurate measurements of the transits must be made to reveal the exomoon's presence.

If variations are detected then, in principle, both the mass and orbit of the exomoon may be calculated from the measurements.

It surely is only a matter of time before the first exomoon is discovered and the probability of finding one in the habitable zone of a star is reasonably high.

We may not find any Ewoks, but habitable exomoons may indeed offer the best prospect for hosting alien life.

Kepler-186f: First potentially habitable Earth-sized planet confirmed - water

The artist's concept depicts Kepler-186f, the first validated Earth-size planet orbiting a distant star in the habitable zone, a range of distances from a star where liquid water might pool on the surface of an orbiting planet.

The discovery of Kepler-186f confirms that Earth-size planets exist in the habitable zone of other stars and signals a significant step closer to finding a world similar to Earth.

The artistic concept of Kepler-186f is the result of scientists and artists collaborating to help imagine the appearance of these distant worlds. 

Credit: Danielle Futselaar.

The first Earth-sized exoplanet orbiting within the habitable zone of another star has been confirmed by observations with both the W. M. Keck Observatory and the Gemini Observatory.

The initial discovery, made by NASA's Kepler Space Telescope, is one of a handful of smaller planets found by Kepler and verified using large ground-based telescopes.

It also confirms that Earth-sized planets do exist in the habitable zone of other stars.

"What makes this finding particularly compelling is that this Earth-sized planet, one of five orbiting this star, which is cooler than the Sun, resides in a temperate region where water could exist in liquid form," says Elisa Quintana of the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center who led the paper published in the current issue of the journal Science.

The region in which this planet orbits its star is called the habitable zone, as it is thought that life would most likely form on planets with liquid water.

Steve Howell, Kepler's Project Scientist and a co-author on the paper, adds that neither Kepler (nor any telescope) is currently able to directly spot an exoplanet of this size and proximity to its host star.

"However, what we can do is eliminate essentially all other possibilities so that the validity of these planets is really the only viable option."

With such a small host star, the team employed a technique that eliminated the possibility that either a background star or a stellar companion could be mimicking what Kepler detected.

To do this, the team obtained extremely high spatial resolution observations from the eight-meter Gemini North telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawai`i using a technique called speckle imaging, as well as adaptive optics (AO) observations from the ten-meter Keck II telescope, Gemini's neighbour on Mauna Kea.

Together, these data allowed the team to rule out sources close enough to the star's line-of-sight to confound the Kepler evidence, and conclude that Kepler's detected signal has to be from a small planet transiting its host star.

The diagram compares the planets of the inner solar system to Kepler-186, a five-planet system about 500 light-years from Earth in the constellation Cygnus. 

The five planets of Kepler-186 orbit a star classified as a M1 dwarf, measuring half the size and mass of the sun. 

The Kepler-186 system is home to Kepler-186f, the first validated Earth-size planet orbiting a distant star in the habitable zone—a range of distances from a star where liquid water might pool on the surface of an orbiting planet. 

The discovery of Kepler-186f confirms that Earth-size planets exist in the habitable zone of other stars and signals a significant step closer to finding a world similar to Earth. 

Kepler-186f is less than ten percent larger than Earth in size, but its mass and composition are not known. 

Kepler-186f orbits its star once every 130-days and receives one-third the heat energy that Earth does from the sun, placing it near the outer edge of the habitable zone. 

The inner four companion planets all measure less than fifty percent the size of Earth. Kepler-186b, Kepler-186c, Kepler-186d, and Kepler-186e, orbit every three, seven, 13, and 22 days, respectively, making them very hot and inhospitable for life as we know it. 

The Kepler space telescope, which simultaneously and continuously measured the brightness of more than 150,000 stars, is NASA's first mission capable of detecting Earth-size planets around stars like our sun. 

Kepler does not directly image the planets it detects. The space telescope infers their existence by the amount of starlight blocked when the orbiting planet passes in front of a distant star from the vantage point of the observer. 

The artistic concept of Kepler-186f is the result of scientists and artists collaborating to help imagine the appearance of these distant Credit: Credit: NASA Ames/SETI Institute/JPL-CalTech.

More information: "An Earth-Sized Planet in the Habitable Zone of a Cool Star," by E.V. Quintana et al. Science, 2014.