NASA DAWN Mission: Near-True Colour Image of Vesta impact craters

Image credit: NASA /JPL-Caltech /UCLA /MPS /DLR /IDA

Three impact craters of different sizes, which some have said are arranged in the shape of a snowman, make up one of the most striking features on Vesta, as seen in this view from NASA's Dawn mission.

In this view the three "snowballs" are upside down, so that the shadows make the features easily recognizable.

North is to the lower right in the image, which has a resolution of 230 feet (70 meters) per pixel.

The image is composed of many individual photographs taken between October and December 2011 by Dawn's framing camera.

The NASA Dawn space probe is equipped with two identical European designed cameras, Framing Camera 1 (FC1) and Framing Camera 2 (FC2). 

Should one of the cameras fail during the mission, the other can replace it. 

The mission itself would not be endangered.

Credit: Max Planck Institute

They were obtained during the high-altitude mapping orbit, at about 420 miles (680 kilometers) above Vesta's surface.

The largest of the three craters, Marcia, has a diameter of about 40 miles (60 kilometers). The central crater, which is about 30 miles (50 kilometers) in diameter, is named Calpurnia, and the lower crater, named Minucia, has a diameter of about 14 miles (22 kilometers).

Marcia and Calpurnia are possibly the result of an impact by doublet asteroids, whereas Minucia was formed by a later impact.

To derive the colour information, scientists combined images acquired by the framing camera in two near-infrared channels (0.917 microns and 0.749 microns) and an ultraviolet channel (0.438 microns).

The true colours of the surface of Vesta differ somewhat from what is displayed here, but this mode of reproduction allows subtle changes in material properties across the craters and material ejected from impacts to be detected.

In both Marcia and Calpurnia, landslides can be seen; also, dark material has been exposed below the rim of Marcia.

The Dawn mission to Vesta and Ceres is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington.

UCLA is responsible for overall Dawn mission science. The framing camera project is funded by the Max Planck Society, DLR and NASA/JPL.

More information about the Dawn Mission is online at: .

European MATROSHKA experiment reveals safer levels of hazardous radiation

Interior structure of the phantom used in the MATROSHKA experiment. 

White tubes contain sets of thermoluminescent detectors. 

Half of these detectors was manufactured by the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Krakow, Poland. 

Image courtesy DLR.

Analysis of data from the MATROSHKA experiment, the first comprehensive measurements of long-term exposure of astronauts to cosmic radiation, has now been completed.

This experiment, carried out on board and outside of the International Space Station, showed that the cosmos may be less hostile to space travellers than expected.

Among the many life-threatening hazards to the space traveller, cosmic radiation is a major one, considerably limiting the time astronauts may spend in space without incurring excessive risk to their health from too high a dose of this ionizing radiation.

To determine the actual doses of radiation which astronauts undergoing long-term space travel are exposed to, the European Space Agency (ESA) in collaboration with research institutions from Germany, Poland, Austria, Sweden and Russia, designed and carried out the MATROSHKA experiment.

A phantom closely mimicking the human body was fitted with several thousand detectors, most of which were manufactured at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFJ PAN) in Krakow, Poland.

These detectors recorded the doses from cosmic radiation inside the International Space Station and outside, in open space, over a few years.

The painstaking analysis of the MATROSHKA data has just been completed, yielding somewhat unexpected results.

"One may say that we found open space to be a bit less hostile to humans than expected. The effective doses, related to the health risk of the astronauts and calculated from measurements with our detectors, were lower than those indicated by dosimeters worn by the astronauts", says Dr. Pawel Bilski, an Associate Professor at IFJ PAN.

A specially adapted humanoid phantom used in medical research, in which real human bones were placed inside a plastic "body" simulating the shapes and densities of soft tissues or lungs in the human body, was used to measure doses of cosmic radiation.

Matroshka with ISS Expedition 11 Commander Sergei Krikalev (left) and ISS Expedition 11 Flight Engineer John Phillips (right)

Credit: ESA

The mannequin (a torso without legs) consisted of 33 slices of 2.5 cm thickness each. The measuring equipment was located inside these slices and included sets of passive thermoluminescent detectors placed in plastic tubes.

Thus, a three-dimensional rectangular grid of measurement points was created inside the phantom by six thousand thermoluminescent detectors. Over three thousands of these detectors were manufactured at the IFJ PAN.

This experimental design enabled the researchers to accurately determine the spatial distribution of dose inside the phantom, to evaluate doses absorbed in particular organs of the human body, and finally to establish the value of the so-called effective dose, which is considered to be an estimate of the radiation hazard to humans.

"Our thermoluminescent detectors are thin white pellets of 4.5 mm diameter. We produce them out of lithium fluoride, adding some carefully selected dopants", explains Prof. Pawel Olko, Scientific Director of IFJ PAN.

The dopants spoil the regular structure of the crystal lattice of lithium fluoride in the thermoluminescent detector and create additional forbidden energy levels, which may act as traps for free electrons created by cosmic radiation in this lattice.

The number of such trapped electrons gradually increases with dose absorbed in the detector.

When the exposed detector is next heated in the laboratory, the trapped electrons are released and emit light, the amount of which is proportional to the dose absorbed in the detector, and can be accurately measured.

The main hazard to the astronaut's health due to exposure to cosmic radiation is the increased probability of developing cancer in his or her body.

This probability however is quite dependent on the type of radiation the astronaut is exposed to.

Most of the natural sources of ionising radiation on Earth produce electromagnetic radiation of high energy; gamma rays.

On the other hand, in cosmic rays, energetic protons or heavier ions dominate, which are much more effective in creating cancer cells.

Thermoluminescent detectors are unable to distinguish between gamma rays or ions, therefore the phantom was also equipped with plastic track detectors in which tracks of protons or heavier ions could be measured.

The mannequin on board of the International Space Station (ISS), with thermoluminescent and plastic detectors inside its "body", was also dressed in a "poncho" with additional detectors, simulating the personal dosimeters worn by astronauts.

Thus, doses recorded by individual dosimeters of the ISS crew could be compared with those actually absorbed inside their bodies.

The MATROSHKA facility basically consists of a human phantom upper torso, a Base Structure and a Container with a total weight of about 65 kg.

Credit: HAMLET project

Over the years 2004-2009 the MATROSHKA mannequin underwent three exposures to cosmic radiation, each lasting a year of more.

Two of these exposures occurred inside the Russian modules of the space station and for one exposure the phantom, in a container imitating the shielding properties of a spacesuit, was placed in open space outside the ISS. Such measurements have never been done before.

After returning the detectors to Earth, their painstaking readout and analysis of the complete data set gathered within the MATROSHKA experiment were carried out by teams of scientists at the IFJ PAN in Krakow, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Cologne and at the Technical University of Vienna.

Their overall conclusion was that the individual dosimeters worn by the crew inside the ISS overestimated the actual dose measured inside the phantom by about 15%. However, in open space this overestimation exceeded 200%.

"We must remember that measurements within the MATROSHKA experiment were performed at low Earth orbit where the Earth's magnetosphere significantly reduces the number of charged particles from cosmic radiation. In interplanetary space there is no such shielding", notices Dr. Bilski.

From the results of the MATROSHKA experiment the scientists conclude that travel of astronauts to the Moon or to Mars may be somewhat safer in terms of their radiation hazard than presumed so far.

Nevertheless, the doses the space travellers are likely to receive, even though being lower than thought earlier, would still remain dangerously high.

The extensive analysis of the data gathered within the MATROSHKA experiment was supported by the HAMLET project, within the 7th EU Framework programme.

TerraSAR-X image shows spread of lava at Bardarbunga

The lava outflow on the Holuhraun field northeast of Iceland's Bardarbunga volcano continues unabated. 

The lava field has grown to cover an area greater than 25 square kilometres. 

In this satellite image, the extent of the lava field is revealed using different colours.

To create this image, three sets of data were acquired at different times, but from the same viewpoint, and then superimposed.

They date from 13 August, 4 September and 15 September 2014 and were acquired by the German radar satellite TerraSAR-X.

Yellow shows the growth of the lava field between 13 August and 4 September; red shows the expansion between 4 and 15 September.

It is obvious that the area has doubled. A second eruption area can also be seen as a small red spot in the lower right corner of the image.

Researchers at the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) Remote Sensing Technology Institute (Institut für Methodik der Fernerkundung; IMF) are continuing to monitor the area.

Radar images can be used to analyse changes to Earth's surface throughout the entire process.

The DLR Earth Observation Center also measures the emissions of sulphur dioxide on a daily basis.

Bardarbunga sulphur dioxide cloud

France raises heat on decision for next Ariane rocket

France's space agency on Thursday unveiled a revised proposal for an Ariane rocket ahead of a tough decision on launchers by the European Space Agency (ESA).

Ministers must decide whether they can afford to fund the development of two projects for Europe's next rocket.



These are an Ariane 6, promoted by France, that would be operational from the next decade and an intermediate launcher, the Ariane 5 ME, backed by Germany.

At a press conference in Paris, France's National Centre for Space Study (CNES) said the overhauled plans for the Ariane 6 resulted in a "simple design with great payload capacity," able to take between five and 10 tonnes into orbit.

It could be ready for launch in 2020, said CNES boss Jean-Yve Le Gall, a date that is a year or two earlier than was expected in July 2013.

"We are looking at a two-booster version, with costs of around 65 million euros [$83.85 million] per launch, and a four-booster version, at around 85 million euros per launch," said Le Gall.

"The per-kilo cost will be around 10,000 euros, roughly half that of Ariane 5 today," he said, referring to ESA's current workhorse.

CNES' previous design for the Ariane 6 had promised a 30-percent gain on Ariane 5 per-kilo launch costs.

"The industrial and institutional organisation of the project will be simplified, with the goal being to save costs," Le Gall pledged.

He admitted there would have to be "compromises" in Luxembourg, adding that around eight billion euros will be earmarked for launchers for the next decade.

"We tend to want everything, but the means to do so aren't always there," he said.

The presentation came a day after a preparatory meeting at ESA where the revised plans were approved by other figures in the space industry, including the head of launch operator Arianespace, Stephane Israel.

The December 2 meeting in Luxembourg will determine the outcome of a difficult political compromise in 2013 between ESA's major partners as nimble US firms such as SpaceX eye the market for satellite launches.

The German-backed Ariane 5 ME, standing for Midlife Evolution, would be a tweaked version of the Ariane 5.

It would in theory be ready by 2017 and yield operational costs over the existing ECA and ES models, which are highly reliable but need hefty subsidies.

In February, France's national auditor disclosed that French policymakers favoured dropping the ME to keep down development costs and prevent a feared delay to the Ariane 6.

ESA Rosetta: First Comet Close-Ups Reveal a 'Scientific Disneyland'

Rosetta spacecraft's OSIRIS narrow-angle camera obtained this close-up detail of a smooth region on the "base" of the "body" section of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko on August 6, 2014.

Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS /UPD /LAM /IAA /SSO /INTA /UPM /DASP /IDA

It's only been a few hours since Europe's Rosetta spacecraft arrived at a comet in deep space, but the robotic probe is already beaming incredible close-up photos of its target.



The latest images from the Rosetta probe reveal details on the surface of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko like never before.

House-size boulders can be seen on the surface of the comet, and the "neck," "body" and "head of the dirty snowball are all on stark display. T

he photos were taken when Rosetta was about 81 miles (130 kilometers) away from the comet.

"We've arrived. Ten years we've been in the car waiting to get to scientific Disneyland, and we haven't even gotten out of the car yet and look at what's outside the window," Mark McCaughrean, senior scientific adviser with the ESA's Directorate of Science and Robotic Exploration, said during a webcast of the Rosetta's comet arrival today (Aug. 6). "It's just astonishing."

Rosetta spacecraft's OSIRIS narrow-angle camera obtained this close-up detail of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko on August 6, 2014. The comet’s "head" lies at the left, casting shadows onto the "neck" and "body" to the right.

Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS /UPD /LAM /IAA /SSO /INTA /UPM /DASP /IDA

And McCaughrean wasn't alone in his enthusiasm at Rosetta's mission operations center in Darmstadt, Germany.

"This is a very, very emotional moment," Holger Sierks, the principal investigator for Rosetta's OSIRIS instrument, said during the webcast.

"You see a lot of detail coming out here. We see the bright areas. We see the head. We see the depression and a lot of stuff laid out there. We see the sides, the body, the lower body of the nucleus and a lot of detail."

Both Rosetta and Comet 67P/C-G are flying in tandem at about 251 million miles (405 million km) from Earth.

Rosetta set off on its quest to link up with the comet in 2004, traveling about 4 billion miles (6.4 billion km) before making its historic rendezvous with the comet this morning.

While today does mark an event 10 years in the making, it is just the beginning of the mission for many ESA scientists.

ESA officials still need to find a suitable landing spot for the Philae lander, a robotic craft that hitched a ride with Rosetta to the comet.

Philae (named for an obelisk found on an island in the Nile River) is designed to touch down on the surface of Comet 67P/G-C to learn more about the composition and properties of the 2.5-mile-wide (4 km) comet.

German Aerospace Center's portal DLR tweeted this photo showing the "face" on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, Aug. 6, 2014.

Credit: DLR

Mission controllers will now put Rosetta into a triangular orbit around Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P/C-G) before moving the probe closer to the comet.

Eventually, Rosetta will move into an even tighter circular orbit to release its lander down to the comet's surface in November.

The $1.7 billion (1.3 billion euros) Rosetta mission is expected to end in December 2015 when the spacecraft moves away from Comet 67P/C-G. Before the end of the mission, however, Rosetta will accompany the comet as it makes its closest pass of the sun in its 6.5-year orbit.

During that close pass, the probe should be able to observe the comet in a very active state.

"After landing, Rosetta will continue to accompany the comet until its closest approach to the sun in August 2015 and beyond, watching its behaviour from close quarters to give us a unique insight and real-time experience of how a comet works as it hurtles around the sun," Matt Taylor, Rosetta project scientist, said in a statement.

ESA Rosetta: Comet Chaser arrives at comet 67/P

After a decade-long journey chasing its target, ESA’s Rosetta has today become the first spacecraft to rendezvous with a comet, opening a new chapter in Solar System exploration.

Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko and Rosetta now lie 405 million kilometres from Earth, about half way between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, rushing towards the inner Solar System at nearly 55 000 kilometres per hour.

The comet is in an elliptical 6.5-year orbit that takes it from beyond Jupiter at its furthest point, to between the orbits of Mars and Earth at its closest to the Sun.

Rosetta will accompany it for over a year as they swing around the Sun and back out towards Jupiter again.

Check on ESA Rosetta status at ESA.int

BIOMEX Mission: Exploring Mars in Low Earth Orbit

BIOMEX Logo. Image courtesy DLR.

In their quest to understand life's potential beyond Earth, astrobiologists study how organisms might survive in numerous environments, from the surface of Mars to the ice-covered oceans of Jupiter's moon, Europa.

For now, Earth is our only example of an inhabited planet, and studying the limits of habitability on Earth is a major component of astrobiology research.

For this reason, scientists collect data from places on our planet where life is pushed to the absolute limits of adaptability, from the Antarctic to the Arctic, and from smoldering thermal vents to highly acidic rivers.

But locations like the Antarctic Dry Valleys or deep-sea vents in the Pacific aren't the only places in which astrobiologists study life as we know it.

Low Earth orbit provides an opportunity to observe Earth-life in the harsh conditions of space.

In the early hours of July 24th, 2014, a new astrobiology experiment began its journey from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan to the International Space Station (ISS).

BIOMEX (Biology and Mars Experiment) launched onboard a Russian Progress cargo spacecraft and is one of four experiments that make up the EXPOSE-R2 facility, which will be mounted on the exterior of the ISS Zvezda module.

Just six hours after launch, the cargo ship successfully docked with the ISS.

Life on the Station
BIOMEX contains twelve different experimental packages that are designed to help determine life's potential on Mars.

The Institute of Planetary Research at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) is coordinating BIOMEX, but the project involves 25 participating institutions from around the world.

BIOMEX contains numerous chambers that are filled with biomolecules and organisms that include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, lichens and mosses.

Replicate samples spread across the compartments are subjected to a range of environmental conditions.

Some samples of each biomolecule or organism are embedded in a simulant Mars soil (ranging from just a single layer of soil to multiple layers), and other samples are left on their own to face the space environment without protection.

Various filters are also being used on the sample chambers to test exposure to different levels of radiation.

By doing this, scientists are able to simulate the solar radiation present at the martian surface. Some of the sample chambers are even pumped full of a simulated Mars atmosphere that is rich in carbon dioxide and pressurized to replicate conditions on Mars.

"To gain real insights into the behaviour of biomolecules within a martian environment, we have to check the different parameters we might encounter on Mars," explained Dr. Jean-Pierre Paul de Vera of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the principle investigator for BIOMEX.

"This means we will approach - as much as possible on the ISS - martian conditions, including extreme temperature regimes, martian atmosphere by using Mars-like gases in the compartments of EXPOSE-R2, and the radiation regime, which we can never simulate in the labs on Earth."

The samples will spend up to one and a half years outside the space station, and the organisms inside will be monitored with temperature sensors and dosimeters, which monitor radiation exposure.

The goal is to see how exposure to these varied environmental pressures affects the survival of the organisms and the stability of important cellular components like membrane lipids, pigments, proteins and DNA.

The results of BIOMEX will help astrobiologists understand whether or not these biological materials can cope with conditions in the space environment and on Mars, and if being buried in martian soil might aid in their survival.

Expose-R2 experment: Exploring Mars in low Earth orbit

The Expose-R2 experment on the outside of the Zvezda module of the International Space Station (ISS). 

Credit: DLR

In their quest to understand life's potential beyond Earth, astrobiologists study how organisms might survive in numerous environments, from the surface of Mars to the ice-covered oceans of Jupiter's moon, Europa.

For now, Earth is our only example of an inhabited planet, and studying the limits of habitability on Earth is a major component of astrobiology research.

For this reason, scientists collect data from places on our planet where life is pushed to the absolute limits of adaptability, from the Antarctic to the Arctic, and from smoldering thermal vents to highly acidic rivers.

But locations like the Antarctic Dry Valleys or deep-sea vents in the Pacific aren't the only places in which astrobiologists study life as we know it. Low Earth orbit provides an opportunity to observe Earth-life in the harsh conditions of space.

In the early hours of July 24th, 2014, a new astrobiology experiment began its journey from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan to the International Space Station (ISS).

BIOMEX (Biology and Mars Experiment) launched onboard a Russian Progress cargo spacecraft and is one of four experiments that make up the EXPOSE-R2 facility, which will be mounted on the exterior of the ISS Zvezda module.

Just six hours after launch, the cargo ship successfully docked with the ISS.

Life on the Station
BIOMEX contains twelve different experimental packages that are designed to help determine life's potential on Mars.

The Institute of Planetary Research at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) is coordinating BIOMEX, but the project involves 25 participating institutions from around the world.

BIOMEX contains numerous chambers that are filled with biomolecules and organisms that include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, lichens and mosses.

Replicate samples spread across the compartments are subjected to a range of environmental conditions.

Some samples of each biomolecule or organism are embedded in a simulant Mars soil (ranging from just a single layer of soil to multiple layers), and other samples are left on their own to face the space environment without protection.

Various filters are also being used on the sample chambers to test exposure to different levels of radiation.

By doing this, scientists are able to simulate the solar radiation present at the martian surface. Some of the sample chambers are even pumped full of a simulated Mars atmosphere that is rich in carbon dioxide and pressurized to replicate conditions on Mars.

"To gain real insights into the behavior of biomolecules within a martian environment, we have to check the different parameters we might encounter on Mars," explained Dr. Jean-Pierre Paul de Vera of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the principle investigator for BIOMEX.

"This means we will approach, as much as possible on the ISS, martian conditions, including extreme temperature regimes, martian atmosphere by using Mars-like gases in the compartments of EXPOSE-R2, and the radiation regime, which we can never simulate in the labs on Earth."

The samples will spend up to one and a half years outside the space station, and the organisms inside will be monitored with temperature sensors and dosimeters, which monitor radiation exposure.

The goal is to see how exposure to these varied environmental pressures affects the survival of the organisms and the stability of important cellular components like membrane lipids, pigments, proteins and DNA.

The results of BIOMEX will help astrobiologists understand whether or not these biological materials can cope with conditions in the space environment and on Mars, and if being buried in martian soil might aid in their survival.

Tools for the Future
While the samples in BIOMEX are attached to the outside of the station, scientists on Earth will be working with replicate samples in the lab.

Here they will simulate martian conditions as best they can in the controlled environment of the laboratory and monitor the Earth-bound samples with a number of instruments.

View of a Progress vehicle connected to the Zvezda module of the ISS. 

The Zvezda Service Module was the first fully Russian contribution to the International Space Station. 

The module provides station living quarters, life support systems, electrical power distribution, data processing systems, flight control systems and propulsion systems. 

Credit: NASA

At the completion of the experiment, BIOMEX samples will be returned to Earth where scientists will take a close look at the results. In the laboratory, they will examine the stability of biomolecules after they have been exposed to the conditions in low Earth orbit.

This includes studying the signatures they leave behind in the sample chambers, which could be useful on future life-detection missions on Mars.

"BIOMEX is investigating the capacity of instruments to detect selected biosignatures (pigments, membrane composites, lipids etc.) in a Mars-like environment before and after space experiments, and also during Mars simulations in the lab," de Vera told reporters.

The set of spectroscopic instruments they are using on Earth are similar to those currently being eyed for Mars missions in the near future.

They include Raman, IR and UV/VIS spectroscopes. Initial tests in the lab have already turned up some interesting results.

Studies at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Cologne and Berlin indicate that biosignatures are altered by temperature and radiation.

This causes their appearance to differ from the signatures we normally observe in Earth conditions.

Beyond Astrobiology
Data from BIOMEX could also have some important applications beyond the realm of astrobiology according to Dr. de Vera.

Studying how biosignatures survive in a simulated Mars regolith might have lessons for archaeology experts on Earth who are looking for radiation-independent (e.g. not carbon 14-dating) methods to study ancient wooden objects.

In particular, the thermogravimetric methodology, which is used by de Vera and his team to test the bounded and remaining water in BIOMEX samples after they have faced the conditions of space, is of special interest for archaeologists.

Raman spectroscopy is also a technique that is growing in prominence for biological studies in numerous fields.

"Raman spectroscopy is used more and more in microbiology, pharmacology and medicine," said de Vera.

"The Robert Koch Institute in Berlin, which is cooperating with us, uses this method (coupled with other methods) to characterise microorganisms that can be harmful to health, and they have to be detected very fast to find out if there could be a risk of an epidemic."

The studies of biofilms in space could have some interesting implications for the health of astronauts and humans on Earth.

On Earth, biofilms are used in some health drinks to trigger the immune system. Studying biofilms in space can help determine whether or not these drinks might be safe for astronauts to consume in orbit, or if the space environment will cause biofilm cultures to rapidly mutate in such a way as to become harmful for consumption.

"Desiccation [removal of water] and radiation protection is also a very important issue," noted de Vera.

"Studies on the exposed samples might give more information about how the most resistant microorganisms are able to shield themselves efficiently, and which substances are responsible for their resistance.

The cosmetic and food industries are interested in these results."

In fact, the Fraunhofer Institute IZI for Cell Therapy and Immunology in Potsdam, Germany is already working with two of the organisms that de Vera and his team are studying.

One is a highly resistant cyanobacteria, and the other is a green algae. Thanks to BIOMEX, these organisms now have a home in low Earth orbit, clinging to the outside of the International Space Station.

The Mars Simulation Facility Laboratory. 

Credit: DLR

Further afield BIOMEX will help astrobiologists understand the potential for habitability on Mars.

If life ever originated on Mars, and if that life operated under the same biological principles as on Earth, could those organisms have adapted to survive on Mars in the present day?

By exploring this question, BIOMEX could help shape the future of Mars exploration, providing guidelines for where robotic explorers might search for signs of life on present-day Mars or signs of ancient life preserved in the regolith.

"With the data obtained by the selected biomolecules as potential biosignatures and which are exposed to the Mars-like conditions in space, we are building up a database that might have significant relevance for future exploration missions to Mars," said de Vera.

"This database might serve as back-up, or a systematically generated reference list that takes into account the martian environmental conditions that might influence the signatures of minerals, and possible fossils or biomolecules from potential extant life forms."

ESA astronaut Alexander Gerst's ISS training continues

ESA’s Columbus Control Centre (Col-CC) supports the European Columbus laboratory on the International Space Station. 

Col-CC is situated at the DLR German Aerospace Center facility in Oberpfaffenhofen, near Munich, Germany. 

The Control Centre is the direct link to Columbus in space. 

Its main functions are to command and control the Columbus laboratory systems, to coordinate operations of the European payloads on the Station and to operate the European ground communications network. 

Credit: DLR/T. Ernsting

An atmosphere of rising excitement can be sensed in the control centre: everything is ready for ESA astronaut Alexander Gerst's voyage to the International Space Station blasting off next Wednesday.

The Columbus Control Centre in Oberpfaffenhofen, near Munich, Germany has followed many launches since its inauguration 10 years ago – but no mission is routine.

The centres in Baikonur, Kazakhstan and Korolev, Russia are in the front line but ESA's site – callsign "Munich" – is responsible for the Columbus module and all European experiments.

Pedro Duque

"We cooperate with our international partners to make sure that the Space Station is ready to receive the Soyuz spacecraft and its crew," says ESA astronaut Pedro Duque, now head of the Flight Operations Office.

If the Station needs to rotate to allow the Soyuz to dock, for example, some European hardware might need to be switched off or risk interfering with the docking.

"Our teams run simulations a few times a year, including emergency scenarios," explains Pedro.

Operators also need to be ready to reconfigure Europe's Columbus laboratory if the planned six-hour flight is switched to a two-day approach, as happened to the previous Soyuz flight following a minor malfunction.

Pedro's experience as an astronaut comes in handy: "I can relate to the crew, and help flight controllers better understand the astronauts' perspective.

ESA astronaut Alexander Gerst during training on the plant gravity sensing experiment, at JAXA’s Tsukuba Space Center in Japan on 4 March 2014. 

As part of the International Space Station, the Japanese Experiment Module, called Kibo, was developed and tested at TKSC. 

At Tsukuba the astronaut training covers experiments that take place in Kibo. 

Alexander Gerst is flight engineer for Expedition 40/41, which will be launched to the International Space Station in May 2014 on a long-duration mission to run science experiments and maintain humankind’s space base. 

Credit: ESA–S. Corvaja, 2014

ESA EuTEF Module takes up its position on the Space Station

The European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) attached to the ESA Columbus module of the International Space Station during orbital flight. 

Credit: DLR, Institute of Aerospace Medicine /Dr. Gerda Horneck

In the movies, humans often fear invaders from Mars.

These days, scientists are more concerned about invaders to Mars, in the form of micro-organisms from Earth.

Three recent scientific papers examined the risks of interplanetary exchange of organisms using research from the International Space Station.

All three, Survival of Rock-Colonizing Organisms After 1.5 Years in Outer Space, Resistance of Bacterial Endospores to Outer Space for Planetary Protection Purposes and Survival of Bacillus pumilus Spores for a Prolonged Period of Time in Real Space Conditions, have appeared in Astrobiology Journal.

Organisms hitching a ride on a spacecraft have the potential to contaminate other celestial bodies, making it difficult for scientists to determine whether a life form existed on another planet or was introduced there by explorers.

So it's important to know what types of micro-organisms from Earth can survive on a spacecraft or landing vehicle.

Currently, spacecraft landing on Mars or other planets where life might exist must meet requirements for a maximum allowable level of microbial life, or bioburden.

These acceptable levels were based on studies of how various life forms survive exposure to the rigors associated with space travel.

Kasthuri J. Venkateswaran

"If you are able to reduce the numbers to acceptable levels, a proxy for cleanliness, the assumption is that the life forms will not survive under harsh space conditions," explains Kasthuri J. Venkateswaran, a researcher with the Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and a co-author on all three papers.

That assumption may not hold up, though, as recent research has shown that some microbes are hardier than expected, and others may use various protective mechanisms to survive interplanetary flights.

These are electron micrographs of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 spores on aluminum before and after exposure to space conditions. 

Credit: P. Vaishampayan et al., Survival of Bacillus pumilus Spores for a Prolonged Period of Time in Real Space Conditions. Astrobiology Vol 12, No 5, 2012.

Spore-forming bacteria are of particular concern because spores can withstand certain sterilisation procedures and may best be able to survive the harsh environments of outer space or planetary surfaces.

Spores of Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 have shown especially high resistance to techniques used to clean spacecraft, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation and peroxide treatment.

When researchers exposed this hardy organism to a simulated Mars environment that kills standard spores in 30 seconds, it survived 30 minutes.

For one of the recent experiments, Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032 spores were exposed for 18 months on the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), a test facility mounted outside the space station.

"After testing exposure to the simulated Mars environment, we wanted to see what would happen in real space, and EuTEF gave us the chance," says Venkateswaran.

"To our surprise, some of the spores survived for 18 months." These surviving spores had higher concentrations of proteins associated with UV radiation resistance and, in fact, showed elevated UV resistance when revived and re-exposed on Earth.

The findings also provide insight into how robust microbial communities are able to survive in extremely hostile regions on Earth and how these microbes are affected by radiation.

Germany's aeronautics and space research centre (DLR): China espionage attack

The logo of the Germany's aeronautics and space research centre (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen, southern Germany 

Germany's aeronautics and space research centre (DLR) has for months been the target of a suspected cyber attack by a foreign intelligence service, a German news weekly reported Sunday.

Der Spiegel said that several computers used by scientists and systems administrators at the Cologne-based DLR centre had been infiltrated by spy programmes.

"The government classes the attack as extremely serious because it, among other things, is aimed at armament and rocket technolgies," Spiegel said.

In some computers IT experts found traces of spy programmes that were set up to destroy themselves on discovery, while others only activated themselves after months of lying in wait.

Spiegel said the attacks were "coordinated and systematic" and all the centre's operation systems were affected.

IT forensic experts probing who could be behind the assault have turned up clues that seem to point to China, but Spiegel quoted an unidentifed "insider" as saying they could also simply be "camouflage".

Government sources said the case was being investigated but declined to confirm any details.

The German aeronautics and space research centre is active in the fields of aeronautics, space, energy, transport and security and is involved in international cooperative ventures, according to its website.

ESA Venus Express spies rainbow-like 'glories' in Venus atmosphere

False colour composite of a ‘glory’ seen on Venus on 24 July 2011. 

The image is composed of three images at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths from the Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC). 

The images were taken 10 seconds apart and, due to the motion of the spacecraft, do not overlap perfectly. 

The glory is 1200 km across, as seen from the spacecraft, 6000 km away. 

Credit: ESA /MPS /DLR /IDA

INTERACTIVE 3D MODEL OF THE VENUS EXPRESS

A rainbow-like feature known as a 'glory' has been seen by ESA's Venus Express orbiter in the atmosphere of our nearest neighbour – the first time one has been fully imaged on another planet.

Rainbows and glories occur when sunlight shines on cloud droplets – water particles in the case of Earth.

While rainbows arch across wide swathes of the sky, glories are typically much smaller and comprise a series of coloured concentric rings centred on a bright core.

Glories are only seen when the observer is situated directly between the Sun and the cloud particles that are reflecting sunlight.

On Earth, they are often seen from aeroplanes, surrounding the shadow of the aircraft on the clouds below, or around the shadow of climbers atop misty mountain peaks.

A glory requires two characteristics: the cloud particles are spherical, and therefore most likely liquid droplets, and they are all of a similar size.

The atmosphere of Venus is thought to contain droplets rich in sulphuric acid.

By imaging the clouds with the Sun directly behind the Venus Express spacecraft, scientists hoped to spot a glory in order to determine important characteristics of the cloud droplets.

They were successful. The glory in the images here was seen at the Venus cloud tops, 70 km above the planet's surface, on 24 July 2011.

It is 1200 km wide as seen from the spacecraft, 6000 km away.

From these observations, the cloud particles are estimated to be 1.2 micrometres across, roughly a fiftieth of the width of a human hair.

The fact that the glory is 1200 km wide means that the particles at the cloud tops are uniform on this scale at least.

The variations of brightness of the rings of the observed glory is different than that expected from clouds of only sulphuric acid mixed with water, suggesting that other chemistry may be at play.

Simulated views of the glory phenomena on Venus (left) and Earth (right), without considering any effects of haze or background cloud brightness.

Glories occur when sunlight shines on cloud droplets – water particles in the case of Earth, sulphuric acid particles for Venus.

The main difference between the appearance of the glory on Venus and on Earth is not because of composition, but rather the particle size.

Cloud droplets on Earth are typically between 10 and 40 thousandths of a millimetre in diameter, but on Venus the droplets found at the cloud tops are much smaller, typically no more than 2 thousandths of a millimetre across. 

Because of this, the coloured fringes are further apart than they would appear on Earth. 

Credit: C. Wilson/P. Laven

One idea is that the cause is the "UV-absorber", an unknown atmospheric component responsible for mysterious dark markings seen in the cloud tops of Venus at ultraviolet wavelengths. More investigation is needed to draw a firm conclusion.

More information: "Glory on Venus Cloud Tops and the Unknown UV Absorber," by W.J. Markiewicz et al, is accepted for publication in Icarus. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2014.01.030

ESA Launcher Controversy: Lighter engines a headache for EADS satellite launcher Ariane-6

EADS Arianespace rockets are said to excel at lifting the heaviest European payloads into space, but a new technology allowing for lighter satellites is causing another headache for an already fast-changing industry.

The number one commercial corporation monopolising the European launcher arena, EADS Arianespace is under intense pressure from a new slate of lower-priced rivals, including US start-up Space X Falcon 9 launcher.

But now lighter-load electric propulsion used by satellites once in space is also attacking the company's hold on the business.

Also known as ion or plasma engines, in 2012 US aerospace giant Boeing was the first to commercially offer a satellite engine that uses electricity from solar panels for thrust.

Most satellite makers followed suit in 2013.

Space X Falcon 9 launcher

While the thrust is weaker than chemical propelled engines, thus taking months instead of weeks to move a satellite after its launch to its final orbit, it uses much less propellant.

This can cut a satellite's launch weight by half, allowing it to be lifted by less powerful rockets, thus lowering costs and creating an opportunity for rivals.

To counter the threat by upstart Space X and other new competitors from India and Japan, the 20 nations that are part of the European Space Agency decided in November 2012 to develop a more powerful launcher and start studies on a second one.

The first is an update of their heavy-lift rocket, the Ariane 5, and should come on line by 2018.

EADS Arianespace 5 ME

The Ariane 5 ME, for midlife evolution, would increase the lift capacity of what is already the biggest commercial rocket to just over 11 tonnes from 10 tonnes.

Simultaneously, at the insistence of France, they began planning for a sleeker Ariane 6 to be ready around 2020 that would be capable of launching 6 tonnes.

To be profitable, the Ariane 5 series must carry two heavy satellites, which can entail delays.

By cutting launch costs, the Ariane 6 makes single satellite launches financially possibile.

Either-or, not both
But France's position has changed and is causing divisions with its ESA partners.

A report by France's national auditor released last week disclosed that Paris now wants to drop the Ariane 5 ME to keep down development costs and push forward with Ariane 6.

The alternative option of "pursuing the two programmes, according to a calendar still to be worked out ... risks a delay to Ariane 6 to a later date -- towards 2025," the auditor said.

Continuing with the Ariane 5 ME is clearly the preference of Berlin, France's top partner in the ESA.

Johann Woerner

"The German position is that we should continue with the Ariane 5 ME to get it onto the market as quick as possible and reflect on what the future launcher should be," the head of Germany's DLR space agency, Johann-Dietrich Woerner, told reporters.

"It won't be possible to finance both programmes 100 percent at the same time. We still need to decide if we move forward with Ariane 6," he said.

While the necessity of launching two satellites is a constraint, it also reduces fixed costs, he said.

Arianespace itself feels the Ariane 5 ME is well adapted for electric propulsion satellites, the first of which Space X is scheduled to launch at the end of this year.

Stephane Israel

After conducting a market study about electronic propulsion satellites, EADS Arianespace believes "there will be a lot of small and medium-sized satellites, and no longer the domination of big satellites that we have seen these last years," said chief executive Stephane Israel.

With a capacity to lift a payload of more than 11 tonnes, the Ariane 5 ME will prove advantageous in that it can lift multiple satellites.

"You can even put three satellites in an ME, a big one and two small ones," Israel told reporters.

"And Ariane 6, also powerful enough to lift two small satellites, will provide an "ultra-competitive" launch offer for customers," he said.

But the question remains whether a market exists for Ariane 6 in its current form and if smaller satellites prevail, it will also find itself with the same disadvantage as Ariane 5 of launching in pairs.

And it will be too big for medium-sized satellites, according to France's national auditor, which will be better served by the Russian Soyuz rockets used by Arianespace for that segment.

Economic Risk of Launchers
Launcher experts have been watching the launch vehicle industry for the past several decades and of all the interesting aspects of the business, the one that stands out the most is the fact that it is exceedingly difficult to make a profit in an industry that spends so much money.

Secondly, it is amazing that so many think they can make money providing launch services to so few customers.

A quick look around the world reveals there are dozens of launch vehicle families vying for the few sales that occur.

There is an old saying: "If you want to become a millionaire in the launch industry, you need to first be a billionaire." The road to success is, in fact, littered with bankrupt companies and ex-billionaires.

Low and behold, EADS Arianespace now finds itself faced with another financial dilemma.

Not only is the European launch company feeling the pressure of competition from the new U.S. startup, SpaceX, but the Euro/dollar exchange rate is also forcing a request to its sponsor, ESA, for more subsidies to shore up support for Ariane 5 operations at its Guiana Space Center in Kourou.

Arianespace claims it is taking steps to remain competitive with SpaceX. However, over the past few months Falcon 9 has begun servicing communications satellite operators, having launched its first two commercial GEO missions.



It is important to note that SpaceX is not subsidized, while EADS Arianespace continues to enjoy well over $100 million in annual gifts from the 20-nation European Space Agency.

The reality of the situation is that EADS Arianespace's subsidies make it non-competitive.

Competition is good. It leads to better products and services at lower prices. It is hard to feel sorry for EADS Arianespace, whose subsidies have been cut in recent years, while it complains about having to face real competition.